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BIOCHEMISTRY BOOK B.PHARM 2ND SEMESTER ,Authors: Dr.G. Murugananthan , Prof. (Dr.) Amredra Pratap Yadav ,THAKUR PUBLICATIONS PVT LTD
BIOCHEMISTRY BOOK B.PHARM 2ND SEMESTER ,Authors: Dr.G. Murugananthan , Prof. (Dr.) Amredra Pratap Yadav ,THAKUR PUBLICATIONS PVT LTD
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The PCI B.Pharm II Semester Biochemistry Book is a comprehensive guide for students pursuing their Bachelor of Pharmacy degree in India. This book covers the fundamental concepts of biochemistry and their relevance to pharmaceutical sciences. It covers a wide range of topics such as biomolecules, enzymes, metabolism, genetics, and molecular biology.
The book also includes practical applications of biochemistry in drug discovery, drug development, and quality control of pharmaceutical products. Written in a simple and easy-to-understand language, this book provides a thorough understanding of biochemistry, which is essential for a successful career in the pharmaceutical industry. It is an ideal reference guide for students, researchers, and practitioners in the field of pharmacy.
| Fast & All India Delivery |
| Written by Experienced Authors |
| As per approved syllabus of P.C.I. |
| With Clear Explanations and Example |
| Provides In-Depth Coverage of the Subject Matter |
Syllabus
Biochemistry
|
Unit
|
Contents
|
Hours
|
|
I
|
· Biomolecules
Introduction, classification, chemical nature and biological role of carbohydrate, lipids, nucleic acids, amino acids and proteins.
· Bioenergetics
Concept of free energy, endergonic and exergonic reaction, Relationship between free energy, enthalpy and entropy; Redox potential. Energy rich compounds; classification; biological significances of ATP and cyclic AMP.
|
08
|
|
II
|
· Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glycolysis – Pathway, energetics and significance. Citric acid cycle- Pathway, energetics and significance. HMP shunt and its significance; Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency. Glycogen metabolism pathways and Glycogen Storage Diseases (GSD). Gluconeogenesis- Pathway and its significance. Hormonal regulation of blood glucose level and Diabetes mellitus.
· Biological Oxidation
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and its mechanism.
Oxidative phosphorylation & its mechanism and substrate phosphorylation.
Inhibitors ETC and oxidative phosphorylation/Uncouplers.
|
10
|
|
III
|
· Lipid Metabolism
β-oxidation of saturated fatty acid (Palmitic acid). Formation and utilization of ketone bodies; ketoacidosis.
De novo synthesis of fatty acids (Palmitic acid). Biological significance of cholesterol and conversion of cholesterol into bile acids, steroid hormone and vitamin D.
Disorders of lipid metabolism- Hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, fatty liver and obesity.
· Amino Acid Metabolism
General reactions of amino acid metabolism: Transamination, deamination & decarboxylation, urea cycle and its disorders. Catabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine and their metabolic disorders (Phenyketonuria, Albinism, alkeptonuria, tyrosinemia).
Synthesis and significance of biological substances; 5-HT, melatonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline. Catabolism of heme; hyperbilirubinemia and jaundice.
|
10
|
|
IV
|
Nucleic Acid Metabolism and Genetic Information Transfer
Biosynthesis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. Catabolism of purine nucleotides and hyperuricemia and gout disease. Organisation of mammalian genome. Structure of DNA and RNA and their functions. DNA replication (semi conservative model), Transcription or RNA synthesis. Genetic code, Translation or protein synthesis and inhibitors.
|
10
|
|
V
|
Enzymes
Introduction, properties, nomenclature and IUB classification of enzymes. Enzyme kinetics (Michaelis plot, Line Weaver Burke plot). Enzyme inhibitors with examples. Regulation of Enzymes- Enzyme induction and repression, allosteric enzymes regulation. Therapeutic and diagnostic applications of enzymes and isoenzymes. Coenzymes –Structure and biochemical functions.
|
07
|
Contents
|
|
Unit-1
Chapter 1: Biomolecules
|
|
|
1.1.
|
Introduction to Biomolecules
|
15
|
|
1.2.
|
Carbohydrates
|
16
|
|
1.2.1.
|
Classification of Carbohydrates
|
17
|
|
1.2.1.1.
|
Classification on the Basis of Complexity
|
17
|
|
1.2.1.2.
|
Classification on the Basis of Reactivity
|
18
|
|
1.2.1.3.
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Classification on the Basis of Functional Groups
|
19
|
|
1.2.2.
|
Structure of Glucose
|
19
|
|
1.2.2.1.
|
Open Chain Structure
|
19
|
|
1.2.2.2.
|
Cyclic Structure
|
20
|
|
1.2.2.3.
|
Mutarotation
|
20
|
|
1.2.2.4.
|
Haworth’s Projection
|
21
|
|
1.2.3.
|
Structure of Fructose
|
22
|
|
1.2.3.1.
|
Open Chain Structure
|
23
|
|
1.2.3.2.
|
Cyclic Structure
|
23
|
|
1.2.3.3.
|
Mutarotation
|
23
|
|
1.2.3.4.
|
Haworth Projection
|
24
|
|
1.2.4.
|
Chemical Nature of Carbohydrates
|
25
|
|
1.2.5.
|
Qualitative Tests of Carbohydrates
|
26
|
|
1.2.6.
|
Biological Role of Carbohydrates
|
27
|
|
1.3.
|
Lipids
|
27
|
|
1.3.1.
|
Classification of Lipids
|
28
|
|
1.3.2.
|
Chemical Nature of Lipids
|
29
|
|
1.3.3.
|
Biological Role of Lipids
|
31
|
|
1.4.
|
Nucleic Acids
|
32
|
|
1.4.1.
|
Classification of Nucleic Acid
|
32
|
|
1.4.2.
|
Chemical Nature of Nucleic Acid
|
32
|
|
1.4.3.
|
Biological Role of Nucleic Acid
|
34
|
|
1.5.
|
Amino Acids
|
34
|
|
1.5.1.
|
Classification of Amino Acids
|
35
|
|
1.5.1.1.
|
On the Basis of Carbon Chain Present
|
35
|
|
1.5.1.2.
|
On the Basis of Nutritional Requirement
|
35
|
|
1.5.1.3.
|
On the Basis of Polarity
|
36
|
|
1.5.2.
|
Chemical Nature of Amino Acids
|
37
|
|
1.5.3.
|
Biological Role of Amino Acids
|
40
|
|
1.6.
|
Proteins
|
40
|
|
1.6.1.
|
Classification of Proteins
|
41
|
|
1.6.2.
|
Chemical Nature of Proteins (Structure)
|
42
|
|
1.6.2.1.
|
Primary Structure
|
43
|
|
1.6.2.2.
|
Secondary Structure
|
44
|
|
1.6.2.3.
|
Tertiary Structure
|
44
|
|
1.6.2.4.
|
Quaternary Structure
|
45
|
|
1.6.3.
|
Biological Role of Proteins
|
45
|
|
1.7.
|
Exercise
|
46
|
|
|
Chapter 2: Bioenergetics
|
|
|
2.1.
|
Concept of Free Energy
|
49
|
|
2.1.1.
|
Gibb’s Free Energy
|
49
|
|
2.1.2.
|
Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions
|
49
|
|
2.1.3.
|
Difference Between the Endergonic and Exergonic Reaction
|
50
|
|
2.1.4.
|
Relationship among Free Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy
|
51
|
|
2.1.5.
|
Redox Potential
|
52
|
|
2.2.
|
Energy Rich Compounds
|
55
|
|
2.2.1.
|
Classification of Energy Rich Compounds
|
55
|
|
2.2.2.
|
High-Energy Bonds
|
55
|
|
2.2.3.
|
Reactions involving Energy-Rich Compounds
|
56
|
|
2.3.
|
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
|
57
|
|
2.3.1.
|
ATP-ADP Cycle
|
58
|
|
2.3.2.
|
Production of ATP
|
59
|
|
2.3.3.
|
Biological Significance of ATP
|
59
|
|
2.4.
|
Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)
|
60
|
|
2.4.1.
|
Production of cAMP
|
60
|
|
2.4.2.
|
Biological Significance of cAMP
|
61
|
|
2.5.
|
Exercise
|
62
|
|
|
Unit-2
Chapter 3: Carbohydrate Metabolism
|
|
|
3.1.
|
Glycolysis
|
65
|
|
3.1.1.
|
Pathway of Glycolysis
|
66
|
|
3.1.2.
|
Energetics of Glycolysis
|
67
|
|
3.1.3.
|
Significance of Glycolysis
|
68
|
|
3.2.
|
Citric Acid Cycle
|
68
|
|
3.2.1.
|
Pathway of Citric Acid Cycle
|
68
|
|
3.2.2.
|
Energetics of Citric Acid Cycle
|
70
|
|
3.2.3.
|
Significance of Citric Acid Cycle
|
70
|
|
3.3.
|
HMP Shunt
|
70
|
|
3.3.1.
|
Oxidative Phase of HMP Shunt Pathway
|
71
|
|
3.3.2.
|
Non-Oxidative Phase of HMP Shunt Pathway
|
71
|
|
3.3.3.
|
Significance of HMP Shunt Pathway
|
72
|
|
3.4.
|
Glycogen Metabolism Pathways
|
73
|
|
3.4.1.
|
Glycogenesis
|
73
|
|
3.4.2.
|
Glycogenolysis
|
74
|
|
3.5.
|
Gluconeogenesis
|
76
|
|
3.5.1.
|
Pathway of Gluconeogenesis
|
76
|
|
3.5.2.
|
Significance of Gluconeogenesis
|
78
|
|
3.6.
|
Hormonal Regulation of Blood Glucose Level
|
78
|
|
3.6.1.
|
Insulin
|
79
|
|
3.6.2.
|
Glucagon
|
80
|
|
3.6.3.
|
Other Hormones Maintaining the Blood Glucose Level
|
81
|
|
3.7.
|
Disorders of glucose metabolism
|
81
|
|
3.7.1.
|
Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) Deficiency
|
81
|
|
3.7.2.
|
Glycogen Storage Diseases (GSD)
|
82
|
|
3.7.3.
|
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
|
83
|
|
3.8.
|
Exercise
|
87
|
|
|
Chapter 4: Biological Oxidation
|
|
|
4.1.
|
Phosphorylation
|
90
|
|
4.1.1.
|
Oxidative Phosphorylation
|
91
|
|
4.1.1.1.
|
Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation
|
91
|
|
4.1.1.2.
|
Proton Gradient
|
91
|
|
4.1.2.
|
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
|
92
|
|
4.1.3.
|
Difference between Oxidative and Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
|
93
|
|
4.2.
|
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)/Respiratory Chain
|
93
|
|
4.2.1.
|
Components of ETC
|
94
|
|
4.2.2.
|
Mechanism of ETC
|
96
|
|
4.2.3.
|
Significance of ETC
|
96
|
|
4.2.4.
|
Energetics of ETC
|
97
|
|
4.3.
|
Inhibitors of ETC and Oxidative Phosphorylation/ Uncouplers
|
97
|
|
4.4.
|
Exercise
|
98
|
|
|
Unit-3
Chapter 5: Lipid Metabolism
|
|
|
5.1.
|
Fatty Acids
|
101
|
|
5.1.1.
|
Saturated Fatty Acids
|
101
|
|
5.1.2.
|
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
|
101
|
|
5.1.3.
|
Metabolism of Fatty Acids
|
102
|
|
5.1.3.1.
|
β-Oxidation of Saturated Fatty Acid (Palmitic Acid)
|
102
|
|
5.1.3.2.
|
α-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
|
106
|
|
5.1.3.3.
|
w-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
|
106
|
|
5.1.4.
|
De novo Synthesis of Fatty Acid (Palmitic Acid)
|
107
|
|
5.2.
|
Ketone Bodies Metabolism (Ketogenesis)
|
109
|
|
5.2.1.
|
Formation of Ketone Bodies (Ketogenesis)
|
110
|
|
5.2.2.
|
Utilisation of Ketone Bodies
|
111
|
|
5.2.3.
|
Clinical Significance of Ketone Bodies
|
112
|
|
5.3.
|
Cholesterol Metabolism
|
113
|
|
5.3.1.
|
Biosynthesis of Cholesterol
|
113
|
|
5.3.2.
|
Degradation of Cholesterol
|
116
|
|
5.3.2.1.
|
Conversion of Cholesterol into Bile Acids
|
116
|
|
5.3.2.2.
|
Conversion of Cholesterol into Steroid Hormone
|
117
|
|
5.3.2.3.
|
Conversion of Cholesterol into Vitamin D
|
119
|
|
5.3.3.
|
Biological Significance of Cholesterol
|
120
|
|
5.4.
|
Disorders of Lipid Metabolism
|
120
|
|
5.4.1.
|
Hypercholesterolemia
|
121
|
|
5.4.2.
|
Atherosclerosis
|
122
|
|
5.4.3.
|
Fatty Liver
|
124
|
|
5.4.4.
|
Obesity
|
125
|
|
5.4.5.
|
Ketoacidosis
|
126
|
|
5.5.
|
Exercise
|
129
|
|
|
Chapter 6: Amino Acid Metabolism
|
|
|
6.1.
|
General Reactions of Amino Acid Metabolism
|
132
|
|
6.1.1.
|
Transamination
|
133
|
|
6.1.2.
|
Deamination
|
135
|
|
6.1.3.
|
Decarboxylation
|
137
|
|
6.2.
|
Urea Cycle
|
137
|
|
6.2.1.
|
Regulation of Urea Cycle
|
139
|
|
6.2.2.
|
Disorders of Urea Cycle
|
139
|
|
6.3.
|
Catabolism of Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
|
141
|
|
6.3.1.
|
Conversion of Phenylalanine to Tyrosine
|
141
|
|
6.3.2.
|
Degradation of Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
|
142
|
|
6.3.3.
|
Metabolic Disorders
|
143
|
|
6.3.3.1.
|
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
|
144
|
|
6.3.3.2.
|
Albinism
|
145
|
|
6.3.3.3.
|
Alkaptonuria (Black Urine Disease)
|
146
|
|
6.3.3.4.
|
Tyrosinemia
|
147
|
|
6.3.4.
|
Synthesis and Significance of Biological Substances
|
149
|
|
6.3.4.1.
|
5-HT (Hydroxy Tryptophan/ Hydroxy Tryptamine)
|
149
|
|
6.3.4.2.
|
Melatonin
|
151
|
|
6.3.4.3.
|
Catecholamine (Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Epinephrine)
|
151
|
|
6.4.
|
Catabolism of Heme
|
153
|
|
6.4.1.
|
Synthesis of Heme
|
153
|
|
6.4.2.
|
Degradation of Heme
|
154
|
|
6.5.
|
Disorders of Lipid Metabolism
|
157
|
|
6.5.1.
|
Hyperbilirubinaemia
|
157
|
|
6.5.2.
|
Jaundice
|
158
|
|
6.6.
|
Exercise
|
160
|
|
|
Unit-4
Chapter 7: Nucleic Acid Metabolism
|
|
|
7.1.
|
Nucleotide Biosynthesis
|
163
|
|
7.1.1.
|
Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotides
|
164
|
|
7.1.1.1.
|
De novo Pathway of Purine Synthesis
|
164
|
|
7.1.1.2.
|
Salvage Pathway of Purine Synthesis
|
168
|
|
7.1.1.3.
|
Regulation of Purine Nucleotide Synthesis
|
170
|
|
7.1.2.
|
Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
|
170
|
|
7.1.2.1.
|
De novo Pathway of Pyrimidine Synthesis
|
170
|
|
7.1.2.2.
|
Salvage Pathway of Pyrimidine Synthesis
|
172
|
|
7.1.2.3.
|
Regulation of Pyrimidine Synthesis
|
173
|
|
7.2.
|
Catabolism of Purine Nucleotides
|
173
|
|
7.2.1.
|
Disorders of Purine Catabolism
|
174
|
|
7.2.2.
|
Hyperuricemia
|
175
|
|
7.2.3.
|
Gout Disease
|
176
|
|
7.3.
|
Catabolism of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
|
178
|
|
7.4.
|
Exercise
|
179
|
|
|
Chapter 8: Genetic Information Transfer
|
|
|
8.1.
|
Genetic Organisation of Mammalian Genome
|
180
|
|
8.1.1.
|
Eukaryotic Genes are Interrupted (Split Genes)
|
180
|
|
8.1.1.1.
|
Size of Eukaryotic Genes
|
181
|
|
8.1.1.2.
|
Eukaryotic DNA Contain Repetitive Sequence
|
182
|
|
8.1.1.3.
|
Eukaryotic DNA is Associated with Proteins
|
183
|
|
8.1.1.4.
|
Histone Genes
|
183
|
|
8.2.
|
Genetics
|
184
|
|
8.2.1.
|
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
|
184
|
|
8.2.1.1.
|
Components of DNA
|
185
|
|
8.2.1.2.
|
Structure of DNA
|
187
|
|
8.2.1.3.
|
Types of DNA
|
189
|
|
8.2.1.4.
|
Functions of DNA
|
189
|
|
8.2.2.
|
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
|
190
|
|
8.2.2.1.
|
Components of RNA
|
191
|
|
8.2.2.2.
|
Structure of RNA
|
192
|
|
8.2.2.3.
|
Types of RNA
|
193
|
|
8.2.2.4.
|
Functions of RNA
|
194
|
|
8.2.3.
|
DNA versus RNA
|
195
|
|
8.3.
|
Genetic Information Transfer
|
196
|
|
8.3.1.
|
Central Dogma
|
197
|
|
8.3.2.
|
Gene Expression
|
197
|
|
8.3.3.
|
DNA Replication
|
198
|
|
8.3.3.1.
|
Models for DNA Replication
|
198
|
|
8.3.3.2.
|
Process of DNA Replication
|
199
|
|
8.3.3.3.
|
Termination of Replication
|
201
|
|
8.3.3.4.
|
Inhibitors of DNA Replication
|
201
|
|
8.3.4.
|
Transcription (RNA Synthesis)
|
201
|
|
8.3.4.1.
|
Process of Transcription
|
202
|
|
8.3.4.2.
|
Post-Transcriptional Modifications
|
204
|
|
8.3.4.3.
|
Inhibitors of Transcription
|
205
|
|
8.3.5.
|
Genetic Code
|
206
|
|
8.3.5.1.
|
Characteristics
|
207
|
|
8.3.5.2.
|
Codon-Anticodon Recognition
|
207
|
|
8.3.5.3.
|
Wobble Hypothesis
|
208
|
|
8.3.6.
|
Translation (Protein Synthesis)
|
208
|
|
8.3.6.1.
|
Requirements of Protein Synthesis
|
209
|
|
8.3.6.2.
|
Stages of Translation
|
210
|
|
8.3.6.3.
|
Post-Translational Modifications
|
213
|
|
8.3.6.4.
|
Protein Synthesis Inhibitors
|
215
|
|
8.3.7.
|
Mutation
|
216
|
|
8.4.
|
Exercise
|
218
|
|
|
Unit-5
Chapter 9: Enzymes
|
|
|
9.1.
|
Introduction to Enzymes
|
220
|
|
9.1.1.
|
Properties of Enzymes
|
220
|
|
9.1.2.
|
Nomenclature and Classification as per IUBMB (International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology)
|
221
|
|
9.1.3.
|
Mechanism of Enzyme Action
|
222
|
|
9.1.3.1.
|
Enzyme-Substrate Complex Formation
|
224
|
|
9.1.3.2.
|
Lowering of Activation Energy
|
225
|
|
9.1.4.
|
Enzyme Kinetics
|
226
|
|
9.1.4.1.
|
Michaelis-Menten Plot
|
226
|
|
9.1.4.2.
|
Lineweaver-Burk Double Reciprocal Plot (Significance of Michaelis-Menten Equation)
|
230
|
|
9.1.5.
|
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
|
231
|
|
9.1.6.
|
Mechanism of Enzyme Catalysis
|
232
|
|
9.1.7.
|
Enzyme Inhibitors
|
233
|
|
9.1.7.1.
|
Reversible Inhibition
|
233
|
|
9.1.7.2.
|
Irreversible Inhibition
|
236
|
|
9.1.7.3.
|
Allosteric Inhibition
|
237
|
|
9.1.8.
|
Regulation of Enzymes
|
237
|
|
9.1.8.1.
|
Altering the Synthesis and Degradation Rate of Enzymes
|
237
|
|
9.1.8.2.
|
Enzyme Induction
|
238
|
|
9.1.8.3.
|
Enzyme Repression
|
238
|
|
9.1.8.4.
|
Allosteric Enzymes Regulation
|
238
|
|
9.1.8.5.
|
Feedback Regulation
|
239
|
|
9.1.8.6.
|
Proenzyme (Zymogen)
|
240
|
|
9.1.9.
|
Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications of Enzymes
|
241
|
|
9.2.
|
Isoenzymes
|
243
|
|
9.2.1.
|
Characteristics of Isoenzymes
|
243
|
|
9.2.2.
|
Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications of Isoenzymes
|
243
|
|
9.3.
|
Coenzymes
|
246
|
|
9.3.1.
|
Classification of Coenzymes
|
247
|
|
9.3.2.
|
Structure and Biochemical Functions of Coenzymes
|
248
|
|
9.4.
|
Exercise
|
254
|
Practicals
|
1.1.
|
Practical 1: Qualitative Analysis of Carbohydrates
|
256
|
|
1.2.
|
Practical 2: Identification Tests for Proteins
|
258
|
|
1.3.
|
Practical 3: Quantitative Analysis of Reducing Sugars and Proteins
|
262
|
|
1.4.
|
Practical 4: Qualitative Analysis of Urine for Abnormal Constituents
|
264
|
|
1.5.
|
Practical 5: Determination of Blood Creatinine, Sugar and Serum Total Cholesterol
|
267
|
|
1.6.
|
Practical 6: Preparation of Buffer Solution and Measurement of PH
|
274
|
|
1.7.
|
Practical 7: Study of Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Starch
|
275
|
|
1.8.
|
Practical 8: Determination of Salivary Amylase Activity
|
276
|
|
1.9.
|
Practical 9: Study the Effect of Temperature and Subtrate Concentration on Salivary Amylase Activity
|
278 |
